Table 3. Characteristics of included studies studying starts and turns performance (n=5).
Author (Year) Quality
Assessment		 Subject
Characteristics		 Age (Mean±SD) S&C Training Intervention Performance
Measurements		 Outcome Measurements
Born et al (2020) 9 N=21: 9M, 12F
National/International Level		 EG1: 17.1 ± 2.6
EG2: 17.1 ± 2.7		 Maximal strength or vertical jump trainings (6-week)
EG1: Maximal Strength Training
EG2: Vertical Jump Training
CG: N/A		 FC Start
Performance Test		 Kinematic Parameters:

Time on the block

Takeoff horizontal velocity

Takeoff angle

 Kinetic Parameters:

Peak power

Peak resultant horizontal & vertical force

Peak horizontal rear foot force

Peak resultant grab force
Karpinski et al (2020) 12 N=16: 16M
National level		 EG: 20.2 ± 1.17
CG: 20.0 ± 1.9		 Core strengthening training
(6-week)
EG: Core Strengthening Training
CG: Normal Training		 FC Swim Block Start & Turn
Performance		 Start Performance

Entry Distance & Velocity

Time in the air (Flight Time)

Dive angle

Reaction time (Start Time)

 Turn Performance

Time 5m after flip turn

Average Velocity after the flip
Rejman et al (2017) 6 N=9: 9M
National Level		 Overall:
21.89 ± 3.41		 Plyometric training (6-week)
EG: Plyometric training
CG: N/A		 Swimming Block Start Performance Temporal Parameters:

Start, Take off, Flight, and Glide time

 Spatial Parameters:

Take-off, Entry, Glide angle

 Velocities:
Average & Instantaneous Take-off, Flight, & Glide velocities
Bishop et al (2009) 13 N=22: Sex: Not mentioned
Regional Level		 EG: 13.1 ± 1.4
CG: 12.6 ± 1.9		 Plyometric training (8-week)
EG: Plyometric training
CG: Normal Training		 Swimming Block Start Performance Start Performance

Swim time to 5.5m

Angle out of blocks (Dive Angle)

Angle of entry into water (Entry Angle)

Distance to head contact (Flight

Distance)

Time to head contact (Flight Time)

Velocity of take-off to contact
Rebutini et al (2016) 9 N=10: 7M, 3F
Competitive or regularly trained		 M: 22 ± 1.4
F: 21.3 ± 7.6		 Plyometric long jump training
(9-week)
EG: Plyometric long jump training
CG: N/A		 Swimming Block
Start Performance		 Kinematic Parameters

Horizontal & Vertical Displacement of Centre of Mass

Horizontal Velocity at Water Entrance

Horizontal & Vertical Take-off Velocity

Peak of Joint Angular Velocities of Hip and Knee

 Kinetic Parameters

Rate of Torque Development of Hip & Knee

Peak Torque of Hip & Knee

Peak Horizontal & Vertical Force

Impulse

Angle of Resultant Force
CG: Control group; EG: Experimental group; F: Female FC: Front Crawl (Freestyle); M: Male; N/A: Not applicable; S&C: Strength and Conditioning; SD: Standard Deviation.