Table 5. Lower-limb joint torque difference between adolescent and collegiate pitchers. Values are expressed as mean (±SD).

Variable	Adolescent pitcher (n = 32)	Collegiate pitcher (n = 30)	ES	Adolescent pitcher (n = 32)	Collegiate pitcher (n = 30)	ES
Joint torques	Pivot leg			Stride leg
Hip Coronal Plane (Adduction:+; Abduction:- )
Joint torque at MKH (Nm/kg)	-.5 (.3)	-.4 (.3)	.17	-.1 (.1)	-.1 (.1)	.02
Joint torque at MAP (Nm/kg)	-1.1 (.6)	-1.8 (.9)**	.86	.2 (.3)	.1 (.3)	.27
Joint torque at SFC (Nm/kg)	.7 (.8)	-.4 (1.1)	.35	.7 (.3)	1.0 (.4) **	1.02
Joint torque at MER (Nm/kg)				-1.7 (.5)	-1.5 (.8)	.22
Joint torque at REL (Nm/kg)				-1.6 (.6)	-1.9 (.4)	.62
Hip Transverse Plane (Internal Rotation:+; External Rotation:- )
Joint torque at MKH (Nm/kg)	-.1 (.1)	-.0 (.1)	.30	.0 (.1)	.1 (.1)	.21
Joint torque at MAP (Nm/kg)	.3 (.3)	.7 (.6)**	.80	-.1 (.1)	-.1 (.1)	.07
Joint torque at SFC (Nm/kg)	-.3 (.3)	-.2 (.3)	.31	-.2 (.1)	-.4 (.2) **	1.06
Joint torque at MER (Nm/kg)				.5 (.3)	.4 (.4)	.27
Joint torque at REL (Nm/kg)				.4 (.3)	.5 (.3)	.24
Hip Sagittal Plane (Flexion:+; Extension:- )
Joint torque at MKH (Nm/kg)	.0 (.3)	.1 (.7)	.36	.1 (.2)	.1 (.3)	.22
Joint torque at MAP (Nm/kg)	51.0 (10.0)	-.5 (1.0) *	.58	.1 (.3)	.2 (.2)	.22
Joint torque at SFC (Nm/kg)	20.5 (14.2)	-1.0 (.7) *	.54	.0 (.2)	-.1 (.4)	.33
Joint torque at MER (Nm/kg)				-2.0 (.7)	-2.2 (.7)	.22
Joint torque at REL (Nm/kg)				-1.9 (.7)	-2.2 (.8)	.47
Knee Sagittal Plane (Flexion:+; Extension:- )
Joint torque at MKH (Nm/kg)	-.1 (.3)	-.3 (.4)	.39	.0 (.1)	.0 (.1)	.22
Joint torque at MAP (Nm/kg)	-1.0 (.6)	-1.7 (.7)	.91	.1 (.1)	.1 (.1)	.29
Joint torque at SFC (Nm/kg)	.3 (.4)	.4 (.4)	.11	-.1 (.2)	-.1 (.2)	.21
Joint torque at MER (Nm/kg)				-1.1 (.8)	-1.5 (.6) *	.58
Joint torque at REL (Nm/kg)				-.5 (1.0)	-1.0 (.9) *	.53
Ankle Sagittal Plane (Dorsiflexion:+; Plantar flexion:- )
Joint torque at MKH (Nm/kg)	.3 (.2)	.3 (.2)	.29	.0 (.0)	.0 (.0)	.26
Joint torque at MAP (Nm/kg)	1.1 (.5)	1.0 (.5)	.16	.0 (.0)	.0 (.0) *	.62
Joint torque at SFC (Nm/kg)	.7 (.5)	.4 (.4) *	.59	.0 (.1)	-.1 (.0)	.38
Joint torque at MER (Nm/kg)				.9 (.5)	.7 (.5)	.25
Joint torque at REL (Nm/kg)				.9 (.5)	.8 (.5)	.13
Maximum joint torques	Pivot leg			Stride leg
Max Hip Adduction Torque (Nm/kg)	1.0 (.9)	.8 (.8)	.17	.8 (.3)	1.0 (.4) **	.83
Max Hip Abduction Torque (Nm/kg)	2.0 (.5)	2.4 (.8) *	.66	1.9 (.5)	2.0 (.5)	.27
Max Hip Internal Rot Torque (Nm/kg)	.6 (.3)	.9 (.5) *	.64	.6 (.3)	.6 (.3)	.15
Max Hip External Rot Torque (Nm/kg)	.4 (.3)	.4 (.3)	.26	.3 (.1)	.4 (.2) **	.87
Max Hip Flexion Torque (Nm/kg)	.2 (.4)	.6 (.9) *	.59	.0 (.2)	-.1 (.4)	.12
Max Hip Extension Torque (Nm/kg)	1.8 (.6)	1.5 (.7)	.45	2.4 (.6)	2.5 (.7)	.18
Max Knee Flexion Torque (Nm/kg)	.5 (.4)	.5 (.4)	.13	.2 (.4)	.0 (.4)	.49
Max Knee Extension Torque (Nm/kg)	1.6 (.5)	2.2 (.6) **	.93	1.7 (.4)	1.9 (.4) *	.55
Max Ankle Dorsiflexion Torque (Nm/kg)	1.2 (.5)	1.2 (.4)	.04	1.0 (.5)	.9 (.5)	.14

ES; Effect Size value. MKH; Maximal stride knee height. MAP; Maximal anterior push-off force. SFC; Stride foot contacts ground. MER; Maximum shoulder external rotation. REL; Ball release. Max; Maximum. Rot; Rotation.* p < 0.05, Significant difference between adolescent and collegiate pitchers.** p < 0.01, Significant difference between adolescent and collegiate pitchers