Systematic Review of the Role of Footwear Constructions in Running Biomechanics: Implications for Running-Related Injury and Performance

Table 5. Summary of the studies on minimalist shoe effect (n = 20).

Reference	Shoe Conditions	Tested running Speed (m/s)	Subject Info (Numbers, Sex, Age, Landing type)	Testing Protocol	Outcome		PEDro Score
Reference	Shoe Conditions	Tested running Speed (m/s)	Subject Info (Numbers, Sex, Age, Landing type)	Testing Protocol	Performance related	Injury related	PEDro Score
Bergstra et al., (2015)	1. Minimalist shoe (MS) 2. Standard running shoes (SS)	MS=3.38; SS=3.41	18, F, AGE, rearfoot striker	Overground running	MS â†“ stance time than Control; â†’ shoe comfort & landing strategy	MS â†‘ peak & mean pressure in medial, central & lateral forefoot during the entire contact phase than SS	6
Bonacci et al., (2013)	1. Barefoot (BF); 2. Minimalist shoe (MS); 3. Racing flat shoe (Race); 4. Athlete’s regular shoe (RS)	4.48 ±5%	22, M=8, F=14, 29.2, highly trained runners	Overground running	BF â†“ knee flexion during midstance, peak internal knee extension, knee abduction moments negative work done, & initial dorsiflexion than shod condition; BF â†‘ peak ankle power generation & positive work done than MS & Race	NA	6
Campitelli et al., (2016)	1. Vibram minimalist shoe (MS) 2. Conventional shoe (CS)	NA	25-M; 16-F; 20-33, rearfoot striker	24-week training programme	MS â†‘ thickness of abductor hallucis muscle; â†’ thickness of abductor hallucis muscle.	NA	7
Firminger & Edwards, (2016)	1. Minimalist shoe (MS) 2. Control shoe (Control)	Preferred speed	15, M, 26.2, rearfoot striker	Overground running	MS â†‘ MTP eccentric work but â†“ MTP concentric work; MS â†‘ peak plantarflexion moment, angular impulse, cumulative impulse & eccentric work; MS â†“ peak knee moment, angular impulse & cumulative impulse; â†’ peak MTP moment, angular impulse & cumulative impulse; â†’ knee concentric & eccentric work; â†’ concentric work at ankle	MS â†‘ MTP & ankle loading; MS â†“ knee loading	6
Fredericks et al., (2015)	1. Barefoot (BF) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS) 3. Personal shoe (PS) 4. Standard shoe (CS)	2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0	26, M=13, F=13, 26.5,	Treadmill running	For rearfoot strike BF â†‘ plantarflexion at toe-off than all other shoes; MS â†‘ plantarflexion at toe-off than CS; For non-rearfoot strike MS & BF â†‘ plantarflexion toe-off than PS; For all foot strike type PS â†‘ step length than BF & MS; â†’foot strike knee angle or toe-off knee angle.	NA	6
Fuller et al., (2017)	1. Conventional shoe (CS) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS)	NA	61, M, 27, rearfoot strikers	Gradually increased shoe wearing time over 26-week running	NA	11 of 30 runners sustained an injury in CS; 16 of 31 runners in MS; MS â†‘ knee & calf pain than CS	7
Fuller et a., (2016)	1. Conventional shoe (CS) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS)	5.0	26, M, 30.0, rearfoot striker with no experience of minimalist shoes	Overground running	MS â†“ initial ankle angle but â†‘ strike index; MS â†‘ negative & positive work at ankle; MS â†“ negative & positive work at knee; â†’ foot strike pattern	NA	6
Goss et al., (2013)	1. Minimalist shoe (MS) 2. Traditional training shoe (TTS) 3. Not training shoe (Control)	NA	47, F, 24, rearfoot striker	Athletic training	MS & TTS â†‘ MPJ moments in 0°MPJ dorsal flexion than Control; MS â†‘ toe flexor muscles strength in 25° MPJ dorsal flexion than TTS	NA	6
Histen et al., (2017)	1. Minimalist shoe (MS) 2. Conventional shoe (CS)	NA	23, M (11 traditional runners, 12 minimalist) 8, F (6 traditional runner, 2 minimalist runner); traditional runner: rearfoot striker Minimalist runner: forefoot/midfoot strike	NA	Minimalist â†‘cross sectional area of AT, stiffness, Young’s modulus, ATs stress during MVIC of plantar flexor muscles	NA	6
Joseph et al., (2017)	Minimalist shoe	NA	F =15; M=7; AGE, traditionally shod runner	Transitioned to minimalist shoe running- 12 weeks	Male â†‘ force, cross sectional area, stiffness & Young’s modulus of AT than women; Male â†“ elongation of AT than women	NA	6
Kahle et al., (2016)	1. Conventional shoe (CS) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS)	Ran at 70% VO2max	12, M, NA, recreational rearfoot striker	Treadmill running	â†’VO2, heart rate, VE, EMG of gastrocnemius & tibialis anterior	NA	6
MaxRobert et al., (2013)	1. Minimalist shoe (MS) 2. Barefoot (BF) 3. Neutral running shoe (NS)	3.3 ± 5%	14, M, AGE, 7 Rearfoot & 7 Forefoot striker	Overground running	BF & MS â†‘ peak propulsive GRF than NS; BF& MS â†“ peak ankle dorsiflexion, peak knee flexion, knee flexion RoM than NS; MS â†‘ plantar flexor moment than BF & NS; MS â†“ peak ankle power than BF & NS; BF & MS â†“ peak knee extension moment than NS; BF & MS â†“ initial peak eccentric knee power than NS	BF & MS â†‘ loading rates than NS in Rearfoot group	6
Mccallion et al., (2014)	1. Barefoot (BF) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS) 3. Conventional shoe (CS)	3.61 ± 0.28; 4.47 ± 0.36	14, M, 25, rearfoot striker	Treadmill running	MS â†‘ stride duration & flight time than BF; CS â†‘ contact time than BF & MS; BF â†‘ stride frequency than CS &MS.	NA	6
Moody et al., (2018)	1. Mizuno Wave Rider (Mizuno) 2. Saucony Kinvara (Saucony) 3. Altra The One (Altra) 4. Vibram El-X/Entrada (Vibram) 5. Barefoot running (Barefoot)	3.3	F=4; 25.2; rearfoot striker M=6; 26.8, rearfoot striker	Treadmill running	Mizuno â†‘ ground time & vertical oscillation but â†“ stride rate than Barefoot; â†’ max knee flexion during stance and swing, hip flexion & extension, ankle angle at touchdown & toe-off	NA	6
Moore et al., (2014)	1. Barefoot (BF) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS) 3. Conventional shoe (CS)	3.8	10, M=9, F=1, 21.0, rearfoot striker	Overground running; 7-week minimalist footwear transition	CS â†‘ number of rearfoot strike trials than other condition; MS â†‘ number of midfoot & forefoot strike trials than other shoes; CSâ†‘ latest occurrence of peak impact force; BF â†“ ground contact time than others.	BF & MS â†‘ loading rate than CS; â†’ magnitude of peak impact force	6
Sinclair et al., (2016)	1. Barefoot (BF) 2. Crossfit shoe (Cross) 3. Minimalist shoe (MS) 4. Conventional shoe (CS)	4.0 ± 5%	13, M, 27.81, rearfoot striker	Overground running	BF & MS â†‘ peak Achilles tendon force than CS; BF & MS â†‘ Achilles tendon impulse than CS; BF & MS â†‘ Time to peak Achilles tendon force than CS; BF, Cross & MS â†‘Achilles tendon load rate than CS.	NA	6
Sinclair et al., (2016)	1. Minimalist (MS) 2. Maximalist (Max) 3. Conventional shoe (CS)	4.0 ± 5%	20, M, 24.24, rearfoot striker	Overground running	CS & Max â†‘ peak knee flexion; knee RoM, peak contact loading (force, pressure, average & instantaneous loading rates, impulse, force per mile) & step length than MS; MS â†‘ initial plantarflexion & number of steps per mile.	CS & Max â†‘ peak patellofemoral force & pressure than MS;	6
Sinclair et al., (2016)	1. Barefoot (BF) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS), 3. Conventional shoe (CS) 4. Cross-fit (CF)	4.0 ± 5%	12, M, 23.1, rearfoot striker	Overground running	BF â†“ time to peak AT force than CF	BF & MS â†‘ peak AT force, the time to peak AT load than CS; CS â†“ average load rate, instantaneous AT load rate of AT than all other conditions; BF & MS â†‘ AT impulse than CS;	6
Willy & Davis, (2014)	1. Minimalist shoe (MS) 2. Conventional shoe (CS)	3.35	14, M, 24.8, rearfoot striker	Treadmill running	â†’ Step length, step rate; MSâ†‘ knee flexion, dorsiflexion angle at footstrike	MS â†‘ Vertical impact peak & average vertical loading rate	6
Warne et al., (2014)	1. Conventional shoe (CS) 2. Minimalist shoe (MS)	3.06	10, F, 21, rearfoot striker	Treadmill running; 4-week minimalist footwear transition	NA	MS â†‘ max force & pressure than CS.	6

AT = Achilles tendons, MVIC = maximal voluntary isometric contraction, VE = pulmonary ventilation, EMG = electromyography, VO₂ = oxygen consumption, RoM = range of motion, MTP = metatarsophalangeal, NA = not available.