Systematic Review of the Role of Footwear Constructions in Running Biomechanics: Implications for Running-Related Injury and Performance

Table 9. Summary of the studies on bending stiffness effect (n = 7).

Reference	Shoe Conditions	Tested running Speed (m/s)	Subject Info (Numbers, Sex, Age, Landing type)	Testing Protocol	Outcome		PEDro Score
Reference	Shoe Conditions	Tested running Speed (m/s)	Subject Info (Numbers, Sex, Age, Landing type)	Testing Protocol	Performance related	Injury related	PEDro Score
Hoogkamer et al., (2018)	1. New prototype shoe (NP) 2. Nike racing shoe (Nike) 3. Adidas racing shoe (Adidas)	3.89, 4.44 & 5.0	18, M, 23.7, rearfoot striker	Overground running	NP â†“ energetic cost than other two shoes	NA	6
Madden et al., (2015)	1. Control shoe (Control) 2. 185% Stiffer shoe (Stiff)	Began at 2.2 m/s, with Speed increasing by 0.2 m/s every two min	18, M, 28.0, rearfoot striker	200 m indoor track running	Stiff â†“ peak MTP bending & peak plantarflexion velocity; â†’ running economy; 10 of 18 athletes improved their running economy across bending stiffness	NA	6
Oh & Park, (2017)	1. Stiffness 1.5 2. Stiffness 10 3. Stiffness 24.5 4. Stiffness 32.1 5. Stiffness 42.1	Under the anaerobic threshold	19, NA, 24.7, rearfoot striker	Treadmill running	Stiffer â†‘ stance time & push-off time; Stifferâ†“ MTP flexion but â†‘ GRP moment arm from ankle; Stifferâ†“ mean MTPJ angular impulse.	NA	6
Roy & Stefanyshyn, (2006)	Bending stiffness: 1.18 N•mm (Control) 2.38 N•mm (Stiff) 3.45N•mm (Stiffest)	Submaximal running speed	13, NA, 27.0, rearfoot striker	Treadmill running	Stiff â†“ max & rate of VO2 than Control; Stiffest â†‘ peak ankle moments than Stiff & Control; Stiffest â†‘ mean energy absorbed at ankle joint than Control; Stiff â†“ 1% metabolic energy than Control; â†’ MTP, knee & hip moments, & EMG RMS.	NA	6
Stefanyshyn & Fusco, (2004)	1.Standard shoe (Control) 2.Stiffness 42 (S42) 3.Stiffness 90 (S90) 4.Stiffness 120 (S120)	Maximal effort	34, M =30, F= 4, AGE, rearfoot striker	20m sprint	Stiffer shoes (S42, S90, S120) â†“ sprint times than Control.	NA	6
Stefanyshyn & Nigg, (2000)	1.Stiffness 0.04 (Control) 2.Stiffness 0.25 (Medium) 3.Stiffness 0.38 (Stiff)-1	4.0±0.4	5, M, 32.0, rearfoot striker	Overground running	Stiff shoe â†“energy lost at MTP than Medium & Control; Medium & Stiff â†“ energy absorbed at MTP than Control; â†’ energy generation & absorption at ankle, knee & hip.	NA	6
Willwacher et al., (2013)	1.Shoe 0.65-0.76 (Control) 2.Shoe 5.29-7.11 (Medium-S) 3.Shoe 16.16-17.10 (High-S)	3.5 m/s ± 5%.	19, M, 25.3, rearfoot striker	Overground running	Medium-S & High-S â†‘ GRF lever arms for all joints than Control; Medium-S â†“ mean ankle joint moments than Control & High-S; High-S â†“ MTP negative work but â†‘ positive work than Control and Medium-S; Medium-S & High-S â†‘ stance time & push-off time than Control; Control â†‘ MTP RoM & maximum dorsiflexion than Medium-S & High-S.	NA	6

Min = Minute, MTP = metatarsophalangeal, VO₂ = oxygen consumption, EMG = electromyography, RMS = root mean square, RoM = range of motion, NA = Not available.